Journal of Research on History of Medicine

Journal of Research on History of Medicine

Classification of Cranial Nerves from Galen to Soemmering, Focusing on the Contributions of Persian/Unani Scholars

Articles in Press

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
Sana Kauser Ateeque Ahmed 1
Tasfiya Hakeem Ansari 2
Osama Riyaz Ahmed 3
Shabistan Fatma Taiyabi 4
Khursid Alam Ansari 5
1 Assistant Professor, Department of Mahiyatul Amraz (Pathology), Mohammadia Tibbia College & Assayer Hospital, Malegaon, Maharashtra, India
2 Lecturer, Department of Mahiyatul Amraz (Pathology), National Institute of Unani Medicine Bengaluru, India
3 Assistant Professor, Royal College of Pharmacy, Malegaon, Maharashtra, India
4 Medical Officer, Government Tibbi College Hospital, Patna, Bihar, India
5 Ayush Doctor, Primary Health Centre, Patedhi Belsar, Vaishali, Bihar, India
10.30476/rhm.2025.106056.1293
Abstract
The evolution of neuroanatomy has been profoundly shaped by the contributions of medical intelligentsia across civilizations. The chronology of the identification and nomenclature of the human cranial nerves reflects a continuum of inquiry spanning antiquity to the modern era. This article examines the anatomical descriptions of cranial nerves through the lens of ancient, medieval, and early modern medical scholarship. Special focus is given to the contributions of Persian and Unani scholars, whose meticulous observations often parallel contemporary neuroanatomical findings. While certain differences exist—particularly in the enumeration and trajectories of cranial nerves—the foundational insights of these scholars remain remarkably prescient. This review draws upon graphic and textual sources from influential figures, such as Galen, Rhazes, Tabari, Haly Abbas, Avicenna, Ismail Gorgani, and Soemmerring. These works, especially from the medieval period, served as vital conduits in preserving and advancing anatomical knowledge. By mapping the progression of ideas and anatomical detail, this study highlights the significant yet often underrecognized role of Islamic Golden Age scholars in shaping modern neuroanatomy. The compiled evidence underscores the enduring relevance of classical texts in tracing the historical development of cranial and spinal nerve anatomy.
Keywords
Cranial Nerve
History of Nerves
Unani/Persian Medicine
Neuroscience in Unani
Neuroscience in Persia
Neuroanatomy
  1. Abu-Asab, M., Amri, H., and Micozzi, M.S., 2013. Avicenna’s canon of medicine: a new translation of the 11th-century canon with practical applications for integrative health care. Simon and Schuster, Healing Arts Press, pp. 367–370.
  2. Abu Bakr al-Razi, 2002. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi [Accessed 5 Feb 2024]
  3. Amr, S.S., and Tbakhi, A., 2007. Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Al Razi (Rhazes): Philosopher, Physician and Alchemist. Annals of Saudi medicine, 27(4), pp. 305-307. https://doi.org/10.5144/0256-4947.2007.305
  4. Antic, T., and DeMay, R.M., 2014. The fascinating history of urine examination. Journal of the American Society of Cytopathology, 3(2), 103-107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasc.2013.12.005
  5. Arzani A., 2002. Mufarreh-ul-Quloob. Idara Kitab-us-Shifa New Delhi, pp. 136-144.
  6. Avicenna, n.d. Alqanoon-Fit-Tib. New Delhi: Idara Kitab-us-Shifa.
  7. Baghdadi, I., 2004. Kitab-ul-Mukhtarat-Fil-Tibb. Vol. 1. New Delhi, India: Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.
  8. Baloyannis, S.J., 2003. The neurosciences in the Greek world. Some aspects of history of Neurosciences. Ranchi: Catholic Press.
  9. Chagmani, S., 2004. Qanooncha. Deoband: Faisal Publication.
  10. Choudry, O., 2013. Ibn Sina: The Prince of Physicians. Islamic information portal. Available at: https://islam.ru/en/content/story/ibn-sina-prince-physicians. [Accessed 6 Feb 2024]
  11. Duckworth, W.L.H., Lyons, M.C., and Towers, B., 1962. Galen on anatomical procedures: the later books. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  12. Flamm, E.S., 1967. Historical observations on the cranial nerves. Journal of neurosurgery, 27(4), pp. 285-297. https://doi.org/10.3171/jns.1967.27.4.0285
  13. Galen, n.d. Science Photo Library. Available from: https://media.sciencephoto.com/image/c0031574/800wm/C0031574-Galen.jpg [Accessed 20 Jan 2024]
  14. García Ballester, L., 1974. De la Anatomía Alejandrina al “Corpus Galenianum”. Medicina e Historia, (da época), pp. 7-26.
  15. Ghaffari, F., Naseri, M., Asghari, M., and Naseri, V., 2014. Abul-hasan al-Tabari: A review of his views and works. History of Medicine, 17(4), pp. 299-301.
  16. Ghaffari, F., Naseri, M., Movahhed, M., and Zargaran, A., 2015. Spinal traumas and their treatments according to Avicenna’s Canon of Medicine. World neurosurgery, 84(1), pp. 173-177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wneu.2015.03.011
  17. Gruner, C., 1973. The Canon of Medicine of Avicenna. New York: AMS Press.
  18. Hansotia, P., 2003. A neurologist looks at mind and brain: “the enchanted loom”. Clinical medicine & research, 1(4), pp. 327-332. doi: 10.3121/cmr.1.4.327
  19. Heydari, M., Dalfardi, B., Golzari, S.E., and Mosavat, S.H., 2014. Haly abbas and the early description of obstructive jaundice. Iranian journal of public health, 43(8), pp. 1161-2.
  20. Hosseini, S.F., Alakbarli, F., Ghabili, K., and Shoja, M.M., 2011. Hakim Esmail Jorjani (1042–1137 ad): Persian physician and jurist. Archives of gynecology and obstetrics, 284, pp. 647-650. doi: 10.1007/s00404-010-1707-7
  21. Jurjani, I., 2010. Zakhira Khwarizam Shahi. New Delhi: Idara Kitab-us-Shifa.
  22. Lyons, M.C., and Towers, B., eds., 2010. Galen on Anatomical Procedures: The Later Books. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
  23. Majoosi, A., 2010. Kamil-us-Sana’a. New Delhi: Idara Kitab-us-Shifa.
  24. Masihi, A.S., 2008. Kitab-ul-Miah. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine.
  25. Modanlou, H.D., 2008. A tribute to Zakariya Razi (865–925 AD), an Iranian pioneer scholar, Archives of Iranian medicine, 11(6), pp. 673–677.
  26. Mubeen, M., Khan, T.N., 2019. Concept of Sihhat (Health): A unique concept in Unani System of Medicine. International Journal of Physiology, Nutrition and Physical Education, 4(1), pp. 1364-1367.
  27. Nuland, S.B., 1995. Doctors: the biography of medicine. New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House, Inc.
  28. Pagel, W., 1970. Galen On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body. Medical History, 14(4), pp. 406–408.
  29. Pinchot, R.B., and Gersten, J., eds., 1930. The brain: mystery of matter and mind. Washington DC: US New Books.
  30. Qarshi, A.A., 2010. Afad-e-Kabeer Majmal. New Delhi: Idara Kitabus Shifa.
  31. Razi, Z., 2007. Kitab al-Hawi. Vol. 1. New Delhi, India: Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare.
  32. Razi, Z., 1991. Kitab-al-Mansoori. New Delhi: Dept of AYUS H, Ministry of H & FW. Govt. of India.
  33. Reynolds, E.H., and Kinnier Wilson, J.V., 2014. Neurology and psychiatry in Babylon. Brain, 137(9), pp. 2611-2619. http://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awu192
  34. Rocca, J., 2003. Galen on the brain: Anatomical knowledge and physiological speculation in the second century AD. Vol. 26. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
  35. Rosenthal, E.I.J., 2024. Averroës. Encyclopedia Britannica. Available at: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Averroes. [Accessed 20 Feb 2024]
  36. Rushd, I., 1987. Kitab-ul-Kulliyat. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine.
  37. Sabatowski, R., Schafer, D., Kasper, S.M., Brunsch, H., and Radbruch, L., 2004. Pain treatment: a historical overview. Current pharmaceutical design, 10(7), pp. 701-716. doi: 10.2174/1381612043452974
  38. Samuel Thomas Soemmering, 2007. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Available at: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Samuel_Thomas_von_Soemmering.jpg [Accessed 11 Feb 2024]
  39. Shoja, M.M., Tubbs, R.S., Khalili, M., Khodadoost, K., Loukas, M., and Cohen-Gadol, A.A., 2010. Esmail Jorjani (1042–1137) and his descriptions of trigeminal neuralgia, hemifacial spasm, and Bell’s palsy. Neurosurgery, 67(2), pp. 431-434. http://doi.org/10.1227/01.NEU.0000372088.18260.B1
  40. Simon, F., Marečková-Štolcová, E., and Páč, L., 2011. On the terminology of cranial nerves. Annals of Anatomy-Anatomischer Anzeiger, 193(5), pp. 447-452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aanat.2011.04.012
  41. Singer, C., 1952. Vesalius on the human brain. London: Oxford University Press.
  42. Singer, C., 1957. A short history of anatomy and physiology from the Greeks to Harvey. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Dover Publications.
  43. Smith, E.S., 1971. Galen’s account of the cranial nerves and the autonomic nervous system. Clio medica, 6(2), pp. 77-98.
  44. Tabari, A.H.A.I.M., 1995. Moalajat Buqratiyah. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine.
  45. Ṭabari, R., 2010. Firdaus-ul-Hikmat-Fit-Tibb. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine.
  46. Von Soemmerring, S.T., 1778. De basi encephali et originibus nervorum cranio egredientium libri quinque (On the base of the brain and the origins of the nerves that exit the skull, five books). Göttingen: Prostant apud Abr. Vandenhoeck viduam.
  47. Walshe, T.M., 2016. Neurological concepts in ancient Greek medicine. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  48. Zarshenas, M.M., Zargaran, A., Abolhassanzadeh, Z., and Vessal, K., 2012. Jorjani (1042–1137). J Neurol, 259, pp. 2764–2765. Available from: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00415-012-6637-9. [Accessed 10 Feb 2024]
  49. Zuhr, I., 1986. Kitab-ul-Taiseer Fil-Madavat-e-Wa-al-Tadbeer. 1st ed. New Delhi: Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine.
Journal of Research on History of Medicine

Articles in Press, Corrected Proof
Available Online from 12 July 2026